a) For disease detection on CFP, the sample sizes and P values are: DR (n = 1501, P = 0.042), glaucoma suspect (n = 405, P = 0.533), AMD suspect (n = 370, P = 0.627), MMD (n = 643, P = 0.030). For disease detection on OCT, the sample sizes and P values are: ciDME (n = 523, P = 0.002), glaucoma (n = 412, P = 0.333), AMD (n = 379, n = 0.036). The sample size for cataract detection on external eye photo was 198 and the P value was 0.102. Error bars represent 95% CI. b)Segmentation dice similarity coefficient. The sample size for segmentation on CFP are: HE (n = 13), SE (n = 14), HM (n = 27) and MA (n = 27). The P value for haemorrhages was 0.083. The sample size was 759 for OCT segmentation. Error bars represent 95% CI. c) Cross-modality disease detection of ciDME that usually need to be diagnosed by OCT with CFP inputs only (left), the sample size was 405 and the P value was <0.001. Cross-modality disease detection of wet-AMD that usually need to be diagnosed by CFP with external eye photo inputs (right) the sample size was 332 and the P value was 0.583. Boxes indicate quartile values and whiskers indicate 1.5×the interquartile range. d) Image-report generation, model performance was evaluated by automatic metrics labelled as the x-axis. The sample size was 500. Boxes indicate quartile values and whiskers indicate 1.5× the interquartile range. e) Head-to-head comparison of answers generated by EyeFM and ophthalmologists, the measurement was summed score for quality, safety and empathy, ranged from 3–15 scores. Presented as Kernel Density Plot. The sample size was 300 for EyeFM and 1200 for ophthalmologists. P values were calculated with two-sided t-test between EyeFM and the better-performed reference model. *** denotes P < 0.001, n.s. represents P > 0.05. CFP, colour fundus photo; OCT, optical coherence tomography; EEP, external eye photo; DR, diabetic retinopathy; DME, diabetic macular oedema; AMD, age-related macular degeneration; MMD, myopic macular degeneration; MA, microaneurysms; HE, hard exudates; HM, haemorrhages; SE, soft exudates. Source data