GoKawiilOur results align with previous research showing that Western consumers are cautiously open to incorporating insects into their diets 34,35,36. The relatively higher proportions of acceptance recorded in our study support the existence of a small but potentially expandable market segment, what Verbeke20 referred to as a “nucleus market”, that may grow with increased exposure and shifting norms. Importantly, our findings suggest that curiosity, environmental concerns, and nutrition are key motivators for this readiness, especially when insect-based products are presented in processed formats that do not show the original morphology of the insect. We discuss the implications of demographic variables and how factors such as age, gender, and food openness intersect with these motivations to shape the evolving landscape of entomophagy acceptance in a multicultural urban context.
Compared to earlier studies with lower acceptance rates37 or those with inflated interest due to self-selection bias19, our sample may better reflect the nuanced and emerging receptivity among the public in Quebec. One possible explanation for this difference is the timing of the studies. Many of the earlier investigations were conducted nearly a decade ago, at a time when entomophagy was still a relatively unfamiliar concept in Western societies. Since then, public discourse surrounding sustainable food systems has expanded considerably, supported by increasing media coverage, educational initiatives, and the publication of high-profile reports such as the FAO’s Edible Insects10. These efforts have helped raise awareness of the environmental and nutritional benefits of insect consumption, potentially leading to a broader and more favorable perception among consumers36. Moreover, public concerns about conventional meat production, ranging from its environmental footprint to ethical and health-related issues, have continued to grow, possibly reinforcing interest in alternative proteins38. In this context, the higher willingness observed in our sample may reflect not only increased exposure to entomophagy over time but also shifting societal values related to food sustainability. Nonetheless, it is worth noting that our participants were recruited at the Montreal Insectarium, a venue likely to attract individuals already more informed or receptive toward insects, further suggesting that targeted education and exposure remain powerful tools in shaping consumer attitudes toward edible insects.
Our data reveal a strong gender effect, with men showing a greater willingness to consume insects compared to women. This pattern is consistent with most previous studies, which have reported lower levels of insect consumption among women20,35,39,40,41,42. However, not all studies have found this difference; for example, Moruzzo et al43. reported no significant gender gap in the willingness to consume insects. The generally lower acceptance among women is likely linked to a stronger aversion to insects, as suggested by earlier work on attitudes toward invertebrates44. Understanding these gender-based differences is essential for developing more targeted and effective strategies to promote entomophagy across diverse consumer groups.
The majority of participants in our study were younger adults with higher education levels; demographics often associated with progressive views on sustainability and greater openness to food innovation45. Many respondents cited environmental sustainability and nutritional value as key motivators for considering insect-based foods, consistent with broader consumer trends emphasizing ecological responsibility and personal health2,13. Notably, our findings reveal that gender and education interact in shaping prior exposure to entomophagy: women were significantly less likely than men to have previously tried insects, but this gender gap was markedly reduced among women with graduate-level education. This suggests that education may play a role in mitigating gender-based reluctance46. This pattern is consistent with studies showing that higher education is associated with lower food neophobia, greater engagement with sustainability issues, and reduced reliance on affective cues such as disgust20. Similar to other studies42,47,48, participants with advanced degrees were more willing to experiment with cooking insects at home and showed greater openness to specific products such as insect-based cheese. These results highlight education not only as a predictor of willingness to try edible insects but also as a potential lever to promote entomophagy across diverse demographic groups. Nonetheless, cultural familiarity with insect consumption remained uneven, reinforcing the importance of exposure, through cultural background, travel, or educational initiatives, as a key driver of acceptance.
Our findings reveal a more complex relationship between age and entomophagy than previously assumed46. While age alone was not a consistent predictor of willingness to consume insect-based products, significant interaction effects with gender emerged for specific items. For instance, men aged 25–34 and over 45 were less likely than their younger counterparts (18–24) to try banana muffins made with insects, whereas women in those same age brackets were more receptive than younger women. This opposing trend between men and women underscores the complexity of age-related influences on entomophagy and challenges the widespread assumption that younger adults are uniformly more accepting of insect-based foods. Notably, in the case of cheese made with insects, men aged 35–44 were more open to consumption than younger men, while women in this age group were significantly less willing than men. Similarly, chocolate-covered larvae bars were more accepted by men aged 35–44 than by those aged 18–24, but overall, women were significantly less receptive than men across age groups. These findings contribute to a growing body of literature highlighting the inconsistent influence of age on attitudes toward insect consumption. While several studies have reported a negative association, suggesting that willingness to consume insects declines with age19,20,49, others have documented a positive effect, with older individuals showing greater openness50,51, a non-linear relationship where middle-aged individuals express the highest interest42, or no significant effect19,35. These discrepancies may stem from a range of underlying factors, including cultural context, generational attitudes toward sustainability, and age-related differences in food neophobia or novelty-seeking tendencies52. For example, younger individuals are often more motivated by sustainability narratives and curiosity-driven behaviors, whereas older age groups may place greater emphasis on food safety, familiarity, and traditional dietary norms. Such differences in values and risk perceptions can shape age-related variability in attitudes toward entomophagy across studies. Together with our results, this body of work suggests that age effects are not monolithic but instead may manifest differently across genders and specific product types. This complexity calls for more targeted strategies in promoting entomophagy, where demographic segmentation by both age and gender could enhance communication and product design.
While nearly 44% of participants expressed some willingness to try insect-based foods, this openness dropped markedly when products featured visible insects. The discomfort associated with visible insects highlights deeply ingrained Western biases that associate insects and other terrestrial arthropods with contamination or uncleanliness rather than nourishment53. This is consistent with findings of Verbeke20, who emphasized that skepticism and disgust are dominant reactions in Western societies where meat remains the cultural norm, and insect consumption is often perceived as primitive or unappealing. These cultural perceptions have been identified as key barriers to acceptance and are further reinforced by the historical lack of exposure to entomophagy in the West54. Previous work in entomophagy supports our findings by showing that concealing insects (e.g., grinding them into powders or incorporating them into baked goods) can help mitigate negative reactions19,21,55,56. More than two-thirds of our respondents specifically identified disgust as a primary reason for rejecting insect-based products, underscoring the influence of culturally ingrained assumptions. As noted in other studies, such aversions are not just sensory but symbolic, often linked to the broader perception of insect-eating as uncivilized or unhygienic57. Given these challenges, consumer education and product development strategies might benefit from presenting insects in visually neutral forms and pairing these products with clear messaging about safety, hygiene, and nutritional value to overcome negative associations related to insects20,24.
Motivations such as environmental sustainability, health benefits, and general curiosity also played a role in encouraging participants to try insect-based foods. Curiosity, in particular, stood out as a key driver among those who expressed willingness, highlighting the appeal of novelty and new culinary experiences2,13. Recent work has highlighted curiosity as an important psychological driver of willingness to try insect-based foods. For example, Stone et al58. found that curiosity both directly predicted willingness to try insect foods and amplified the influence of other predictors in experimental evaluations of insect- and non-insect dishes among British consumers. These findings suggest that curiosity can override initial aversion and motivate exploration of novel foods. Unlike Stone et al58., who examined curiosity in controlled experiments, our study captured attitudes from visitors to a public science institution, where participants evaluated specific product types and linked their preferences to sustainability and nutrition rather than novelty alone. Our study thus shows that curiosity operates alongside other motivations shaped by context and prior knowledge.
However, despite increased awareness of the nutritional and ecological advantages, a substantial proportion of respondents remained hesitant, indicating that factual information alone may be insufficient to shift entrenched food norms. Such resistance may stem in part from deeply rooted emotional responses. As shown by Hartmann and Siegrist21, individual sensitivity to disgust (e.g., especially related to food contamination) can significantly predict the rejection of unprocessed insect products. Although such disgust responses vary across individuals, they are often reinforced by associations between insects and decay or dirt59. Thus, our finding that many participants favored insect powders or processed forms supports the idea that reducing visual and textural cues can improve acceptance. This pattern is consistent with previous studies showing that consumers are substantially more willing to try insects when they are incorporated into familiar foods or processed into flours, rather than presented whole20,21. These studies similarly report that concealment of insect morphology reduces disgust triggers and increases perceived safety and palatability. Additionally, some participants indicated that sweet formats (e.g., cookies) were more appealing, a pattern that aligns with human preference for sweet-tasting foods35,60. These insights suggest that efforts to promote entomophagy should go beyond presenting facts and instead address emotional and sensory concerns more directly54. Interactive and culturally resonant approaches that normalize insect consumption, while also offering familiar or hedonic formats, may help overcome food neophobia and disgust-based aversion.
Despite some reservations, some participants expressed optimism about the long-term potential of insect-based foods, even if they were hesitant to adopt them in the present. Evidence from alternative protein markets indicates that consumer willingness to try emerging foods is shaped by early attitudes and expectations about their future relevance and value61,62. Moreover, familiarity and repeated exposure are known to reduce uncertainty and reluctance toward novel foods, supporting gradual acceptance through experience, social learning, and normalization63. Finally, concerns related to affordability, safety, and social acceptance also emerged as relevant factors, consistent with evidence that perceptions of product quality and consumer trust strongly influence willingness to consume insect-based foods 35.