GoKawiilAbstract Introduction: Bicycling, inclusive of cycling on trail or road, and stationary forms, is recognized for its substantial physical benefits and has gained attention for its broader impact on dimensions of well-being. Evidence demonstrates that bicycling improves cardiovascular fitness, body composition, and metabolic health while serving as an effective strategy for exercise promotion and disease prevention. Beyond physical outcomes, growing evidence supports bicycling's impact on psychological and cognitive domains of well-being from large associative studies, active travel, and bicycling programs. Methods: This scoping review synthesizes research examining the impact of bicycling interventions on psychological, social, affective, and cognitive domains of well-being. Database searches of EBSCOhost, ProQuest, PsycINFO, PsycArticles, and PubMed identified relevant studies. Of the 1,653 studies identified, 87 studies met inclusion criteria. Results: A majority of studies implemented acute, indoor bicycling interventions assessing cognitive outcomes. Synthesized results indicate positive impacts of bicycling on well-being, including improved mood, reduced depressive symptoms, increased social connection, and enhanced cognitive functioning, especially among interventions occurring outdoors and over multiple sessions. Affective and cognitive outcomes varied by intervention, context, and population. Discussion: This scoping review reinforces bicycling as a multidimensional modality for promoting well-being by synthesizing findings from 87 intervention studies across 19 countries. Notable improvements across well-being domains emerged, particularly in multi-session, outdoor interventions. Findings underscore the necessity for translational and inclusive community-based research beyond indoor environments, and exploration of how unique bicycling features (i.e., outdoor exposure, social opportunity, and meaningful routine) promote holistic well-being across the lifespan.
1 Introduction Bicycling, whether on mountain or trail, road, or stationary bikes, and whether for transportation, recreation, or competition, has been widely studied for its contributions to physical, emotional, and psychological well-being ( 1, 2). As interest grows in the relationship between movement and mental health, bicycling has emerged as a practical, accessible, adaptable, and sustainable activity that supports holistic wellness across diverse populations and settings ( 3). Beyond its well-documented physical health benefits ( 4), bicycling has been increasingly recognized for its positive effects on mental and emotional well-being ( 2, 5). Physical activity, including bicycling, has been associated with reduced symptoms of depression and anxiety, improved mood, and enhanced emotional regulation ( 3, 6). Neurobiological mechanisms, such as the release of endorphins and other neurotransmitters, may underlie some of these effects ( 7). Additionally, bicycling often facilitates social interaction and community engagement, contributing to greater social cohesion and a sense of belonging ( 8, 9). Much of the existing literature relies on population-level survey data to examine associations between bicycling and mental well-being ( 10, 11). For example, Friel et al. ( 12) conducted a prospective longitudinal study and found that commuting via bicycle was associated with a lower risk of all-cause mortality, as well as a lower likelihood of having a prescription for mental health problems compared to non-bicyclist commuters. These studies offer important evidence on the role bicycling may play in supporting well-being, but they are limited in their ability to establish causal relationships. In contrast, intervention-based studies, which involve structured programs or activities designed to assess the direct impact of bicycling activities, can provide stronger evidence of the intentional effects of bicycling on specific health outcomes. Yet, to date, these intervention studies remain fragmented and under-synthesized. This scoping review aims to address this gap by systematically mapping the existing literature on bicycling-related interventions and their impacts on psychological, social, affective, and cognitive well-being. By focusing specifically on interventions, we seek to better understand how bicycling can be intentionally leveraged to promote these domains of well-being across the lifespan. Several frameworks describe the interaction between physical activity and cognitive, psychological, and behavioral outcomes. Self-determination theory suggests physical activity enhances well-being by satisfying core psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness ( 13). Whereas a biopsychosocial model suggests that psychological benefits, such as improvements in mood, are promoted by physiological changes, such as the release of endorphins that occur during and after physical activity ( 14). Together, these theories highlight the complex interplay between physical activity and various domains of well-being. In practice, bicycling programs may engage multiple domains of well-being from individual to community levels ( 15). However, despite these frameworks, how bicycling interventions are intentionally designed to leverage these mechanisms, particularly for non-physical outcomes, has yet to be synthesized. Given the range in how bicycling interventions are researched, designed, implemented, and evaluated across different populations and outcome domains, a scoping review is warranted to map the available evidence, identify key themes, and highlight gaps in the literature. For the purposes of this review, we adopt a broad definition of “bicycling interventions” as the purposeful or structured use of a bipedal vehicle (e.g., road, mountain, gravel, and other bicycles used outdoors or indoor stationary bicycles) to facilitate changes across four domains of well-being (psychological, affective, social, and cognitive, see Table 1). Under this definition, the included interventions span a wide range of aims, intensities, time scales, and settings. For example, indoor, laboratory-based acute cycling studies often prioritize internal validity to isolate specific effects and mechanistic insight. On the other hand, multi-session outdoor programs often prioritize ecological context and real-world implementation. Including these dimensions (i.e., indoor vs. outdoor; acute vs. multi-session) allows this review to map the full range of pathways through which bicycling may influence well-being. All age groups, clinical and non-clinical populations, and international studies published in English were included to capture global trends and translational work. Table 1 Well-Being Domain Description Examples of Subareas Example Measures from the Literature Psychological Well-Being The broader state of mental and emotional health, including self-esteem, purpose, and self-efficacy. Self-esteem, self-efficacy 36-Item Short Form Health Survey ( 22), General Self-Efficacy Scale ( 29), World Health Quality Assessment Instrument-100 ( 31) Social Well-Being Social well-being refers to how individuals perceive the quality of their relationships and their integration within social systems, including family, peers, and communities. Strong social wellness is associated with stronger support networks and a reduced risk of mental health challenges such as loneliness and depression. Feelings of social support, feelings of isolation, sense of belonging, community engagement. Trier Social Stress Test for Groups ( 34), Social Interaction Anxiety Scale ( 36), Lubben Social Networking Scale ( 40) Affective Well-Being Affective well-being concerns the balance of positive and negative emotions and mood. It is a core component of subjective well-being and closely tied to emotional regulation capacities. Mood, depressive and anxiety symptoms, emotional regulation. Positive and Negative Affect Schedule ( 61), Beck Depression Inventory ( 47), State and Trait Anxiety Inventory ( 53) Cognitive Well-Being Cognitive health refers to the ability to think, learn, and remember, encompassing mental functions such as attention, memory, processing speed, executive function, and problem-solving. It is an important component of overall brain health. Maintaining strong cognitive health is especially important across the lifespan to prevent cognitive decline and support adaptive functioning. Attention, memory, and executive functioning; cognitive flexibility and processing efficiency; risk of cognitive impairment. Wisconsin Card Sorting Test, Stroop Task, N-Back Task, Tower of London, Trail Making Test, Digit Span, Auditory Oddball, Task (P300) EEG, fMRI, fNIRS Descriptions of the domains of well-being. The table describes the domains of well-being and provides examples of related subareas and measures used to assess each domain. This comprehensive approach aligns with the goals of this scoping review to synthesize what is known about bicycling interventions, highlight what dimensions may shape different outcomes, and identify gaps to inform future research and practice. Specifically, this review addresses how bicycling interventions differ across indoor and outdoor settings, how acute, short-term, and long-term interventions assess different domains of well-being, and which populations are represented across the literature.
2 Methods 2.1 Data sources and search strategy This scoping review was conducted by integrating the Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) methodology ( 16) with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) ( 17). A comprehensive search strategy was utilized to identify literature examining the relationship between bicycling (including mountain biking, road biking, and stationary biking) and four domains of well-being including psychological, social, affective, and cognitive well-being. A database search of EBSCOhost (Academic Search Complete, Academic Search Elite, Academic Search Premier, CINAHL Complete, ERIC, MEDLINE, Psychology and Behavioral Sciences Collection), ProQuest, PsycINFO, PsycArticles, and PubMed was completed using key search terms. The following search string was implemented: “Mountain Biking” OR “Road Biking” OR “Road Cycling” OR “Bicycling” BY TITLE OR ABSTRACT AND “Mental Health” OR “Mental Wellbeing” OR “Health” OR “Wellbeing” OR “Physical Health” OR “Physical Wellbeing” OR “Psychological Wellbeing” OR “Psychological Health” OR “Cognitive” OR “Neurological” OR “Physical” OR “Social Emotional Health” OR “EEG” BY ABSTRACT Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) terms “Bicycling/physiology” OR “Bicycling/psychology” were also incorporated into the EBSCOhost and PubMed searches; however, such options were not available through PsycINFO or ProQuest. To ensure relevancy and recency, the publication date range was limited to a 20-year period ranging from September 27, 2004, to September 27, 2024, based on the date of the initial search. The final search was conducted on February 20, 2025. 2.2 Study inclusion criteria The research question was developed using The Population, Concept, and Context (PCC) framework ( 16). For this Scoping Review, the population consisted of individuals of all ages and included clinical populations; the concept was any bicycling intervention that assessed psychological, social, affective, and/or cognitive well-being outcomes; the context included all geographic locations and participant demographics so long as the bicycling intervention primarily assessed one of the above domains of well-being. Studies that were not accessible in English were excluded. Additional details regarding study design are reported in Table 2. Table 2 Author, Year Country n Intervention Well-Being Domain(s) Selection of Measures Results Bike, Location Aguirre-Loaiza et al. ( 63) Colombia 19 2 Groups (Physical Exercise group of 1 session of 20 min cycling, Control: rest) Cognitive Stroop Task Reduced RTs in Physical Exercise Group Stationary, Indoor Akaiwa et al. ( 82) Japan 25 4 Conditions (Only oddball task; Oddball task while pedaling at optimal cadence; Oddball task while pedaling faster than optimal; Oddball task while pedaling slower than optimal) Cognitive Oddball Task, EEG (P3) P300 amplitude at Fz decreased under fast and slow conditions; P300 amplitudes at Pz under fast and slow conditions were significantly lower than those under the optimal condition Stationary, Indoor Anderson et al. ( 44) Australia 20 12-week trial of bicycle commuting Affective; Social Qualitative Interviews E-cycling participants reported improved mental and physical well-being E-Bike, Outdoor Anderson-Hanley et al. ( 120) United States 10 2 Groups (stationary bicycle or a cybercycle); 2–5×/week 45 min per session for 3 months Cognitive Trail Making Test (TMT), Stroop Test, Digit Span, Purdue Pegboard (PP) No significant differences in executive function; exercisers with Diabetes exhibited significant gains in executive function Stationary or Cybercycle, Indoor Ando et al. ( 64) Japan 12 3 Sessions (1 calibration, 2 experimental); 2 Conditions (Cycle at 40%, 60%, and 80% of VO2, Rest fixed at 20W) cycling for about 20 min Cognitive Flanker Task, NIRS System Premotor time during exercise at 60% Vo2 significantly shorter relative to that at rest, but no differences at 80%; cerebral oxygenation substantially decreased during exercise at 80% peak Vo2 Stationary, Indoor Armstrong et al. ( 45) Australia 29 3 Conditions (FES-cycling, adapted cycling and goal-directed training); 3 one-hour training sessions/week for 8 weeks Affective; Social Qualitative Interviews Themes: engagement facilitated by the therapist's connection, cycling is fun and participant driven goal setting, while getting there and time off school were identified as challenges. Participants positively linked improved physical function to greater independence. Stationary, Indoor Avila-Gandia et al. ( 121) Spain 25 2 constant intensity cycling tasks with different cognitive loads Affective; Cognitive n-back, oddball, self-assessment manikin (SAM) Higher executive load elicited less positive exercise-triggered valence Stationary, Indoor Brookman et al. ( 28) Australia 32 26-day virtual cycling competition Affective; Cognitive; Psychological; Social Geriatric Depression Scale (GDS), The Geriatric Anxiety Inventory (GAI), Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA); The Cornell Scale of Depression in Dementia (CSDD), The General Self Efficacy Scale (GES), Lubben Social Networking Scale (LSNS) Significant decrease in depression, increase in self-efficacy, self-reported improvements in well-being Stationary, Indoor Brown et al. ( 5) United States 41 2 Groups (Adventure Therapy Mountain Bike, Mountain Bike); 14 Sessions: 9 Weeks: 2×/week 90 min Affective; Psychological; Social Qualitative Interviews Mountain bike program increased focus, competency, physical and mental wellbeing, and connection to the environment MTB, Outdoor Brown et al. ( 104) United States 41 2 Groups (Adventure Therapy Mountain Bike, Mountain Bike); 14 Sessions: 9 Weeks: 2×/week 90 min Psychological Resiliency Scales for Children and Adolescents (RSCA) Participants in the Adventure Therapy only group experienced an increase in resiliency, while those in the MTB only group experienced a decrease. MTB, Outdoor Buchholtz & Burgess ( 122) South Africa 35 1 session; Cycle at 3 different intensities for 10 min each (30 min total) Cognitive Eye Gym Reaction Time Test There were no significant differences in SRT or CRT between sexes and no significant differences in SRT at different intensities of cycling for all participants; significant difference between CRT at different intensities Stationary, Indoor Bullock et al. ( 65) United States 12 3 conditions: rest, low-intensity exercise, and high-intensity exercise of 50 min each Cognitive Oddball Task, EEG (P3) RT significantly decreased as a function of exercise intensity with fastest in high intensity condition; target detection accuracy was not modulated by exercise Stationary, Indoor Bullock et al. ( 123) United States 18 2 Sessions (Baseline, Cycling: Low Intensity and High Intensity for 40 min each) Cognitive EEG Cortical Activity, Orientation Test Feature-selective tuning profiles were highest during low-intensity exercise Stationary, Indoor Davranche et al. ( 66) UK 14 2 periods of 20-min cycling at 50% maximal aerobic power Cognitive Flanker Test Faster reaction time Stationary, Indoor Dementyev et al. ( 116) United States 1,148 6–8-week middle school intervention; ∼20 min cycling 3 days/week Affective; Psychological WHO-5 Well-Being, The Pediatric Symptom Checklist-17 (PSC-17-Y) General increase in psychosocial well-being MTB, Outdoor Dishman et al. ( 60) United States 36 3 Conditions (moderate intensity aerobic exercise, low intensity aerobic exercise, or no-treatment control); 3 x/week for 30 min over 6 weeks Affective; Cognitive Profile of Mood States-Short Form (POMS-SF), EEG Cortical Activity EEG activity was not different between groups or across time over anterior sites Stationary, Indoor Dodwell et al. ( 88) Germany 24 3 Conditions (Perform a task at rest, during moderate-intensity exercise, and during vigorous-intensity exercise) lasting ∼25 min each Cognitive EEG (N2), Additional-Singleton Visual Search Task Faster reaction times during vigorous exercise Stationary, Indoor Duchesne et al. ( 50) Canada 39 2 Groups (Healthy Control, Parkinson's Disease); 36 Sessions: High-intensity, stationary recumbent bike-training program, 3×/week for 12 weeks) for 20–40 min Affective; Cognitive Stroop Test, Serial Reaction Time Task (SRTT), Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI), Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) Aerobic Exercise Training improved inhibition and motor learning skill in both groups Stationary, Indoor Dutke et al. ( 74) Germany 60 4 groups: Physical load (medium vs. high) and Cognitive load (lower vs. higher); Cycle for 18 min in each session Cognitive Word Comparison Test, Interval Production No significant differences for accuracy or response times Stationary, Indoor Enders et al. ( 92) Canada 10 3 Sessions (1 maximum aerobic power test, 2 time-to-exhaustion trial at 85% maximum power output, separated by 48 h) Cognitive EEG Cortical Activity Left frontal cortex showed an increase in alpha, beta, and gamma bands; SMA and left parietal cortex significant increase in the alpha and beta bands; right parietal cortex only for the alpha band Stationary, Indoor Fiorelli et al. ( 124) Brazil 12 3 Conditions (Control session; HIIT: 25-minutes of high-intensity cycling intervals, and MICT: 0-minute moderate intensity cycling) Cognitive WAIS III, Symbol Search, Digit Span, Trail Making Test (TMT) MICTimproved immediate auditory memory; HIITimproved immediate auditory memory, attention, and sustained attention Stationary, Indoor Focht et al. ( 25) United States 33 2 Groups (Young adult, Older adult); 20-min bout of stationary cycling at 65% of VO2peak Affective; Psychological Feeling Scale and Felt-Arousal Scale, Exercise-Induced Feelings Inventory, 4-Item Self Efficacy Questionnaire Both groups reported reduced pleasant feeling states and self-efficacy and increased physical exhaustion Stationary, Indoor Fontes et al. ( 101) South Africa 7 Cycling in MRI Machine: 6 trials of 2 min with 16-s intervals between trials Cognitive fMRI Cerebellar vermis and precentral and postcentral gyrus activated when cycling; Posterior cingulate gyrus and precuneus activated during challenging blocks Stationary, Indoor Geard et al. ( 38) Australia 26 2 Groups (Cycling training: 3 sessions per week of 45–60 min cycling vs. Recreation: Bicycle as usual); 12 weeks Cognitive; Psychological; Social The Veterans RAND 36-Item Health Survey (VR-36), UCLA 3-item Loneliness Scale, MOS Cog-R Training Group had significantly higher social functioning Stationary, Indoor Grego et al. ( 125) France 12 2 Conditions (Control, Cycling); 2 Session: baseline, 3 h cycling exercise cycling at 66% VO2 max Cognitive Auditory Oddball, EEG (P3), Cortisol Temporary increase in P300 between 1st and 2nd hour, Increased cortisol Stationary, Indoor Grego et al. ( 67) France 8 2 Groups (Control and Cycling: 3 h cycling task at a∼ 60% of VO2max); 2 Sessions (fluid ingestion, no fluid ingestion) Cognitive Critical Flicker Fusion test (CFF), Map recognition Decrease in CFF performance and increased errors after 120 min of exercise when compared with the first 20 min; Faster RTs between 20 and 120 min Stationary, Indoor Harper et al. ( 49) United States 35 2 Groups (Cycling, Control); 3 Sessions: Cycle for 40 min, 1 week Affective; Cognitive Beck Depression Inventory (BDI-II), Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA); Val66 polymorphism Significant main effect of time for emotion recognition Stationary, Indoor Harwood et al. ( 76) United States 10 5 sessions (1 calibration, 4 bicycling for 25 min at different intensities; 5 weeks Cognitive Oddball paradigm. Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA), EEG (P3) Bigger P300 associated with post-exercise recumbent bike cycling Stationary, Indoor Hazamy et al. ( 68) United States 60 2 Sessions (Dual Task: Cognitive task while pedaling at self-paced speed; Single Task: No cycling) Cognitive Cognitive Test Battery Dual task: faster RTs in visual tasks across cognitive domains, and improved verbal recall; Persons with Parkinson's Disease exhibited impairments compared to healthy participants in select tasks Stationary, Indoor Holzapfel et al. ( 126) United States 34 3 Groups (Assisted Cycling Therapy, voluntary cycling, and no cycling); 24 Sessions: 8 weeks, 30 min sessions 3×/week Cognitive Tower of London (TOL), Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test 4th ed. (PPVT-IV), Purdue Pegboard (PP) Assisted Cycling Therapy improved dexterity, temporal and spatial processing, and cognitive planning Stationary, Indoor Holzschneider et al. ( 102) Germany 106 2 Groups (aerobic endurance training (cycling) or a non-endurance training (stretching and coordination)); 60 min cycling 2x/week for 6 months; Cognitive fMRI, Virtual Maze Task Behavioral data did not differ between the cycling and the stretching group Stationary, Indoor Hö tting et al. ( 127) Germany 68 3 Groups (Cycling Training: 45 min each session, Stretch/Coordination, Sedentary Control); Twice a week for 6 months. Cognitive Auditory Verbal Learning Test, Zahlenverbindungstest (Similar to Trail Making Test), “d2” Letter Cancellation Test, Stroop Task, Leistungsprufsystem Intelligence Test Significant improvements in memory were observed in both the cycling and the stretching/ coordination group as compared with the sedentary control group. Stationary, Indoor Hüttermann & Memmert ( 128) Germany 17 2 Groups (Expert athletes, non-athletes) cycle at 50%, 60%, and 70% of the maximum heart rate for 10 min each Cognitive Visual Field Test, Attentional Breadth Task Expert athletes outperformed non-athletes in the attentional breadth task during 50% workload; participants attained highest success rates at 60% Stationary, Indoor Joubert et al. ( 129) United States 21 2 Groups: traditional sit (SIT) and stationary cycle (CYC) groups; CYC pedaled 10 min during a 50-min lecture, 3x/week for 12 weeks Cognitive Grade Point Average (GPA), Academic Performance No significant differences between CYC and SIT on in-class test scores or overall course grades Stationary, Indoor Kilpatrick et al. ( 130) United States 24 5 sessions; 4 conditions of 20 min at different cycling intensities separated by at least 24 h Affective 11-point Feeling Scale (FS), 7-point Exercise Enjoyment Scale (EES) Affective and enjoyment responses were significantly less positive for the heavy continuous trials Stationary, Indoor Kojima et al. ( 99) Japan 12 2 Conditions (Rested wakefulness, 24-h Sleep Deprivation); Pre and Post cognitive assessment; 20-min cycling at 60% VO2peak Cognitive Stroop Test, NIRS Oxygenation to the DLPFC increased at 12 min after exercise onset; moderate-intensity exercise reverses Sleep Deprivation-induced cognitive decline Stationary, Indoor Leyland et al. ( 19) UK 100 3 Groups (Non-Cycling Controls, Pedal Cyclists, E-Biker Cyclists); Cycle 3x/week for at least 30 min over 8 weeks Affective; Cognitive; Psychological Stroop Task, Letter Updating Task, Psychological Well-being Qx (PWB); Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS); Consortium to Establish a Registry for Alzheimers Disease (CERAD) immediate and delayed recall. MMSE; Satisfaction in Life (SL), Health Survey Short Form (SF-36) Both cycling groups improved in accuracy compared to non-cycling control participants. E-bike participants also improved in processing speed and in their mental health scores (SF-36) compared to non-cycling controls E-Bike, Outdoor Li et al. ( 35) China 80 2 dyad groups (Experimental: 30-min bicycling; Control: 30 min single person sitting); 30-minutes over 1 session Affective; Cognitive; Social fNIRS, Prisoner's Dilemma, Social Interaction Anxiety Scale (SIAS), Beck Depression Index (BDI) Cycling dyads had significantly higher cooperation rate and efficiency after intervention. Stationary, Indoor Lindheimer et al. ( 56) United States 60 4 Groups (Active cycling/informed on benefits; Active cycling/not informed; Passive cycling/informed, Passive cycling/not informed); Active cycling: 30 min at 35% V02 Max; Passive Cycling: 30 min Affective; Cognitive State Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI); Profile of Mood States (POMS-BF): Visual n-back Task Mood and cognitive performance were not improved by active or passive cycling Stationary, Indoor Ludyga et al. ( 93) Germany 26 1 session; Cycle for 30 min Cognitive EEG Cortical Activity No observed sex-specific differences of cortical activity during exercise at constant workload. Stationary, Indoor Ludyga et al. ( 94) Germany 29 2 Groups (High V02, Low V02); 2 Sessions (1: Graded cycling exercise over 40 min, 2: EEG recording at rest and cycling for 30 min) Cognitive EEG Cortical Activity Alpha/beta ratio was increased in HIGH Vo2 compared to LOW V02 in resting state and exercise condition Stationary, Indoor Ludyga et al. ( 97) Germany 22 2 Groups (low and high cycling cadence training); 60 min of cycling per week over 4 weeks Cognitive EEG Cortical Activity Greater increase of frontal alpha/beta ratio was confirmed in high cadence group Stationary, Indoor Micklewright et al. ( 131) United States 20 2 laboratory ramped cycling tests beginning at 50 W and increasing by 0.25 W/s until volitional exhaustion Cognitive Recognition Memory Task Recognition memory performance had strong negative correlations with perceived exertion Stationary, Indoor Miki et al. ( 132) Japan 78 2 Groups (Intervention: speed-feedback therapy with a bicycle ergometer 1×/ week for 4 weeks, Control: life as normal); Cycle for 5 min Cognitive Frontal Assessment Battery; Functional Assessment of Cancer Therapy General (FACT-G) Frontal Assessment Battery for the intervention group was higher than control group at week 4; No differences in FACT-G Stationary, Indoor Miyamoto et al. ( 133) Japan 13 4 sessions of 30 min cycling (Control, Cognitive and Physical Exercise, Cognitive Exercise, Physical Exercise) Cognitive Stroop Test, Digit Span, Wisconsin Card Sorting Task (WCST), BDNF CCPE had no additional or synergistic effect on peripheral BDNF levels compared to PE alone. Stationary, Indoor Moore et al. ( 75) United States 30 2 Groups (Exercise Group with 60-min bout of cycle ergometry at 90% ventilatory threshold, Rest Group for 60 min) Affective; Cognitive Mental and Physical State and Trait Energy and Fatigue Scale, Visual-discrimination test, Vigilance test Exercise Group had slower perceptual-discrimination tasks and response times Stationary, Indoor Mullane et al. ( 134) United States 9 4 conditions (SIT, STAND, WALK and CYCLE) across a 6 h. period with a 7 day washout period between conditions. Cognitive One Back Test, Set Shifting Test, Detection Test CYCLE condition had most pronounced Treatment effect Stationary, Indoor Neumeier et al. ( 20) Austria 74 2 Groups (Active Commuting, Control: No change); 12 months Psychological Health Survey Short Form (SF-36) Active commuting group reported improved mental health and quality of life 2 Wheel, Outdoor Olson et al. ( 69) United States 27 3 Sessions: 1: Exercising on a cycle ergometer at 40%, 2: Cycle 60% VO2 peak, 3: No-exercise seated control Cognitive Flanker task, EEG (N2, P3) Impaired accuracy during both exercise conditions; Faster reaction times during moderate-intensity exercise. Stationary, Indoor Olson et al. ( 51) United States 27 2 Conditions (low intensity cycling for 20 min, seated control); 2 Sessions Affective; Cognitive EEG (P3), Visual oddball, State Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI); Perceived Stress Scale (PSS), Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) Significant reduction in P300 amplitude was observed during the 20 min exercise period compared to the control condition Stationary, Indoor Page & Nilsson ( 41) UK 31 2 Groups (Active Commuting, Travel as Usual); 3–8-week E-Bike Loan Affective; Psychological; Social Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB), Counterproductive Workplace Behavior (CWB), Flourishing scale, Short General Health Questionnaire (GHQ12), Weekly diary Active commuting reported more positive affect, better physical health and more productive organizational behavior outcomes; more frequent active commute was positively associated with more productive organizational behavior and stronger overall positive employee well-being E-Bike, Outdoor Palmer et al. ( 135) United States 300 3 groups (Mountain Biking Unit Intervention, Standard PE, No PE); 4 weeks Psychological Behavioral Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire (BREQ), Measure of perceived self-efficacy for overcoming barriers, Physical Self Perception Profile No main effects of the PE intervention MTB, Outdoor Pasekova et al. ( 95) Russia 30 1 session; Increasing Cycling Load test until submaximal heart rate Cognitive EEG Cortical Activity Gradual Alpha power increase was detected in both hemispheres with every load stage Stationary, Indoor Perciavalle ( 136) Italy 30 Multistage incremental cycling test to exhaustion Cognitive Self-Ordered Pointing Task (SOPT) Acute exhaustive exercise increases blood lactate and is associated with a significant worsening of WM. Stationary, Indoor Pesce et al. ( 70) Italy 16 2 Groups (Physically active vs. inactive older adults) complete acute cycling task with attentional task; 2 acute sessions Cognitive Go/No-go task Physically active individuals had faster RTs Stationary, Indoor Pickering et al. ( 46) UK 35 2 Groups (Cycling, Control Waitlist) for 6 weeks Affective; Social Qualitative Interviews Interview themes: Learning a new skill; impact on wider family and friends; opportunity for social participation; future aspirations 2 wheel; Adaptive, Outdoor Pontifex & Hillman ( 79) United States 41 2 Conditions (Upright cycling at 60% of max HR; Rest); Cycle ∼10 min Cognitive Flanker Test, EEG (N1, N2, P2, P3) Exercise: Reduced accuracy for incongruent trials; Decreased N1 at parietal sites and globally for N2 Stationary, Indoor Proost et al. ( 137) Belgium 16 3 Sessions: 1 calibration, 2 experimental of low-intensity bike task for 9 min; 2 conditions: cycle after mentally fatiguing task or rest Cognitive Flanker Task, Stroop Test, EEG Cortical Activity Higher mental workload in mentally fatiguing conditions compared to rest; Significant differences in beta frequency during biking Stationary, Indoor Qi et al. ( 138) China 79 3 groups: control group (CG), dancing group (DG) and bicycling group (BG) of 30 min cycling; 12 weeks Cognitive EEG Cortical Activity Brain flexibility across all recording sites and four brain regions in both the DG and BG groups were significantly enhanced. Stationary, Indoor Quaney et al. ( 77) United States 38 2 Groups (Cycle Group: Progressive resistive stationary bicycle training at 70% max heart rate, Stretching Exercise Group: stretches at home); 24 Sessions: 3×/week, 45-min sessions, 8 weeks Cognitive Wisconsin Card Sorting Task (WCST), Stroop Test; Trail Making Test (TMT), Serial Reaction Time Test (SRTT); Predictive Grip Force Modulation (PGFM), Fugl-Meyer Sensorimotor Test AEX significantly improved information processing speed, predictive force accuracy Stationary, Indoor Ridgel et al. ( 73) United States 19 4 sessions 1×/ week for 4 weeks; 3 30 min passive cycling sessions on motorized bicycle Cognitive Trail Making Test (TMT) Significant improvement on the TMT-B after passive leg cycling; Decreased RTs from pre to post Stationary, Indoor Ringenbach ( 26) United States 9 3 sessions; 3 Conditions (voluntary cycling (VC); assisted cycling (AC): no cycling (NC)); Each intervention separated by 1 week; 30 min exercise Cognitive; Psychological Purdue Pegboard (PP), Physical Activity and Self-efficacy, Tower of London RTs decreased and TOL improved for Assisted Cycling Stationary, Indoor Ringenbach ( 139) United States 44 3 sessions per week for 8 weeks; 3 Groups (Assisted Cycling, Voluntary Cycling, Control); 35 min cycling per session Cognitive Wisconsin Card Sorting Task (WCST), Visual Choice Reaction Time (VCRT); NEPSY Knock-Tap Task, Language Fluency The Assisted Cycling group showed significantly improved RTs Stationary, Indoor Ryu et al. ( 30) Republic of Korea 60 2 (Groups Outdoor Cycling, or Occupational Therapy); 16 weeks with one 90-min group session per week, 40 min of cycling Affective; Cognitive; Psychological Brief psychiatric Rating Scale (BPRS), Beck Depression Index (BDI), State Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI), Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSE), Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST), The World Health Organization Quality of Life Scale (WHOQOL-100), The Global Assessment of Functioning Scale (GAF) Outdoor Cycling Group: Improved psychotic symptoms, depression, state and trait anxiety, and global functions 2 wheel, Outdoor Samendinger et al. ( 24) United States 82 12 cycling sessions over 4 weeks; Cycle at 75% Max Heart Rate 50 min or less Psychological Exercise Persistence, Self Efficacy Questionnaire Previous days’ residualized performance was a significant predictor of performance, as was same-day residualized self-efficacy; Residualized self-efficacy became a stronger predictor over time Stationary, Indoor Sandroff et al. ( 71) United States 24 5 sessions (1 calibration, 4 experimental); 4 Conditions (Cycling: Incremental maximal exercise cycling test for 20 min; Walking; Guided Yoga; Rest); 5 weeks Cognitive Flanker Test, Symbol Digit Modalities Test (SDMT), Neurological Exam General pre-to-post improvements in reaction time, but not accuracy for all 3 exercise modalities but not rest Stationary, Indoor Scanlon et al. ( 86) Canada 12 2 conditions: inside cycle, outside cycle for 24 cycling min each Cognitive Auditory Oddball, EEG (P, N1, P2) Significantly reduced P300 difference in the outdoor cycling; Significantly larger average amplitude of the N1 for outside 2 wheel, Outdoor Scanlon et al. ( 78) Canada 10 2 Conditions (Quiet Park, Busy Roadway); Cycle for 24 min Cognitive Auditory Oddball, EEG (N1, P3) Increased N1 near roadway; no significant difference in response accuracy; significant increase in beta oscillations in park condition 2 wheel, Outdoor Schmidt-Kassow et al. ( 90) Germany 12 2 Groups (Exercise: 30 min, No Exercise); 3 weeks Cognitive EEG (N4), Vocabulary Test Larger N400 effect and better performance in vocabulary tests when physically active during the encoding phase. Spinning group outperformed sitting group Stationary, Indoor Schmidt-Kassow et al. ( 140) Germany 105 2 Groups (No exercise, Exercise: 30 min bicycle); 2 sessions within 48 h Cognitive BDNF, Vocabulary Learning Light- to moderate-intensity physical activity during encoding improved vocabulary learning Stationary, Indoor Schmidt-Kassow et al. ( 84) Germany 17 1 session; 4 experimental blocks (pedaling periodic; pedaling aperiodic; sedentary periodic; sedentary aperiodic) Cognitive EEG (P3) Simultaneous pedaling increased predictability of P300 Stationary, Indoor Shima et al. ( 59) Japan 14 3 Conditions over 3 Sessions: non-exercise (Rest), standard solitary cycling exercise (Ex), and AR-based multi-person cycling exercise (Ex + AR) for 10 min Affective; Cognitive Profile of Mood States 2nd Edition (POMS 2), Oxytocin Ex + AR significantly suppressed the depression-ejection score and significantly increased salivary oxytocin levels Stationary, Indoor Storzer et al. ( 141) Germany 14 2 Conditions (Cycle, Walk); 20-minute sessions Cognitive EEG Cortical Activity Bicycling associated with decrease in high beta band (23–35 Hz) during movement initiation and execution Stationary, Indoor Storzer et al. ( 52) Germany 13 3 Conditions (stationary bicycle simulator, over-ground walking, baseline control); 7 total minutes of movement Affective; Cognitive Mattis Dementia Rating Scale (DRS), the Frontal Assessment Battery, and the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) Both bicycling and walking led to a suppression of subthalamic beta power (13–35 Hz), and this suppression was stronger for bicycling. Stationary, Indoor Szabo et al. ( 62) Hungary 18 2 conditions: No instructor, instructor-led workout; 2 sessions of 35 min cycle Affective Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS), Subjective Enjoyment Scale Positive affect increased while negative affect decreased after both workouts; participants enjoyed more the instructor-led exercise session Stationary, Indoor Tempest & Reiss ( 98) United States 13 4 Sessions: 1 calibration session, 3 cycling sessions at different intensities for 16 min Cognitive 0 and 2 back Visuospatial n-back test, fNIRS Consistent cortical activation in the contralateral primary motor cortex while cycling at a low and high intensity Stationary, Indoor Theurel et al. ( 142) France 10 2 Conditions: E-Bike vs. Classic Bike; 3 sessions (1 calibration, 2 cycling in each condition for 30 min) Cognitive Mail Sorting Test Mail sorting time significantly longer after exercise with classic bikes compared to cycling with E-Bike or rest Traditional and E-Bike, Indoor Tollár et al. ( 21) Netherlands 83 3 Groups (High-intensity agility exergaming, Stationary cycling, Control: No exercise); 30 sessions: 5×/week for 5 weeks cycling at 80% of max heart rate for 1 h Affective; Psychological Schwab-England Activities of Daily Living scale, Beck Depression Index (BDI), Health Survey Short Form (SF-36) Improvements in SF-36 in cycling groups; Exergaming group had highest improvements in SE-ADL Stationary + exergaming, Indoor Tse et al. ( 143) China 62 3 Groups (Learning to Ride a Bicycle Group: 5 sessions over 2 weeks, 60 min per session; Stationary Cycling Group: 2-wk stationary cycling program; Control Group: Activity as usual) Cognitive Tower of London (TOL), Corsi block tapping task (CBTT), Digit span, Stroop Test, Go/No-go (GNG) Significant improvements in all executive function components and TOL Task in the learning to ride a bicycle group but not other groups Bike + Stationary, Indoor Vogt et al. ( 72) Germany 11 2 Conditions (Cycle, Relaxation) for 10 min each; 2 sessions separated by 24 h. Cognitive EEG (N2), Reaction Time Decreased frontal electrocortical activity, reaction time, and N2 latency after cycling. Stationary, Indoor Vogt et al. ( 96) Germany 18 2 Groups (Moderate Intensity Cycling, No exercise); Three 5 min trials Affective; Cognitive EEG Cortical Activity, MoodMeter Strong global alpha and beta responses when exercise was added Stationary, Indoor Webb et al. ( 57) United States 16 2 Groups (Low-Fitness, High-Fitness); 2 Conditions (Exercise-alone condition: cycling at 60% V O2max for 37 min; Dual-challenge condition: mental challenge for 20 min while cycling); 3 Sessions (1 baseline, 2 experimental) Affective; Cognitive Stroop Test, Mental Arithmetic (MA) Task, State and Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI); NASA Task Load Index (NTLX) Dual Challenge Condition increased in state anxiety and exacerbated cortisol responses; LF participants had a greater overall cortisol response; Low Fitness Group had a greater cortisol response Stationary, Indoor Wu et al. ( 100) China 16 Maximal exertion bicycle test; 2 sessions within 2 days in a low-load and a high-load condition Cognitive NIRS Greater prefrontal activations in the low-load condition Stationary, Indoor Wunsch et al. ( 33) Germany 84 2 Groups (Exercise: Cycle for 30 min moderate-vigorous intensity, Control: Stretch for 30 min) Psychological; Social Trier Social Stress Test for Groups (TSST-G), Salivary Stress Biomarkers (sCort and sAA) Reduced stress activation for both types of exercise. Only habitual engagement in exercise exhibited a beneficial effect on peak cortisol levels Stationary, Indoor Yang et al. ( 144) China 50 2 Groups (Aerobic Group: cycling training at 70% of maximal intensity for 40 min/d, 3 d/wk for 3 months, Control: health education) Affective; Cognitive; Psychological Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE), APO-a1, Alzheimer's Disease Assessment Scale (ADAS-Cog), Quality of Life in Alzheimer's Disease (QoL-AD), Neuropsychiatric Inventory Questionnaire (NPI-Q) MMSE score, QoL-AD, plasma Apo-a1 level significantly increased in cycling group; ADAS-Cog and NPI-Q significantly decreased Stationary, Indoor Zander et al. ( 32) Australia 17 12-week cycling promotion program; cycle for at least 2 h Affective; Psychological; Social Qualitative Interviews Interview themes: Choosing cycling for exercise; fear of cars and riding on streets; taking up cycling was a liberating, fun experience Bike, Outdoor Zink et al. ( 83) Belgium 15 3 Conditions 12 min each (Free Pedal, Fixed Pedal, Still); 1 session Cognitive Oddball Auditory Task; EEG (P3 & N1) Decrease in P300 amplitude in free biking condition Stationary, Outdoor Characteristics of included studies: The table summarizes characteristics of the 87 studies included in this scoping review reporting data for the author and year, country, number of participants (n), intervention design, Well-Being Domain(s) assessed, selection of well-being measures, highlight of results, type of bicycle used, and whether the intervention primarily occurred indoor or outdoor. The scope of inclusion was narrowed to studies in which bicycling (e.g., mountain biking, e-biking, road cycling, or stationary bicycling) was a primary intervention activity. Additionally, the study needed to assess bicycling's impact on a psychological, social, affective, and/or cognitive well-being outcome (see Table 1 for definitions of these domains). In terms of exclusion criteria, gray literature and reviews (systematic, scoping, or narrative) were excluded to ensure all studies met the specific inclusion criteria of this review, although primary studies cited within relevant reviews were screened individually. Studies in which bicycling was incidental, secondary to another intervention, or where health outcomes could not be directly attributed to bicycling (i.e., combined effects of bicycling and walking) were excluded. Several records examining transportation and urban infrastructure were excluded for not meeting inclusion criteria, as they either did not include a specific intervention component, or did not assess one of the defined outcomes of interest. Several studies focused on competitive athletic performance were also excluded when bicycling was used to examine other outcomes, such as performance or heart rate, rather than the outcomes of interest. This review also excluded interventions that implemented stationary desk bikes and hand cycles. 2.3 Charting the data Data extraction and charting were completed by Author LS with key characteristics of interest identified by the research team prior to data extraction. Data categories extracted included title, author, year of publication, country, sample size, participant age range, gender of population, whether race/ethnicity demographics were reported, whether a clinical population was studied, intervention time scale (acute vs. short-term vs. long-term), intervention details, selection of social, affective, psychological, or cognitive outcome measures, general results reported, type of bicycle, and whether the intervention occurred primarily indoors or outdoors. Acute interventions were defined as single or two-session interventions. Short-term interventions were defined as including at least three bicycling-specific sessions over at least two weeks and up to twelve weeks. Long-term interventions were defined as any intervention lasting more than twelve weeks. Each relevant outcome measure was coded as positive, negative, neutral, or inconclusive, with some studies including more than one outcome measure. Data extraction was verified by Author EW.
4 Discussion 4.1 Summary This scoping review includes synthesized evidence from 87 intervention studies performed across 19 countries, emphasizing the multidimensional potential of bicycling interventions to promote well-being across psychological, social, affective, and cognitive dimensions. Summarized results across all studies demonstrated that bicycling interventions have a majority of positive effects on the different domains of well-being across both indoor and outdoor environments, as well as across different lengths of interventions. Positive results were more consistent among outdoor and short- and long-term bicycling interventions. While several studies reported negative effects of bicycling in the indoor environments, those study protocols often included tests to exhaustion, or vigorous cycling, demonstrating an inverted- U effect of bicycling in the acute high intensity settings indoors. These study protocols were intentionally designed to induce negative valence and to challenge participants, leading to the higher proportions of negative impacts reported among acute interventions. Inconclusive results were reported for studies that only included a brain imaging measure, where it could not be determined if the effect of bicycling was positive, neutral, or negative. Similarly, in a scoping review focused on mountain biking, Kuklinski et al. ( 103) identified 116 studies spanning 24 countries that were used to identify five domains of influence (i.e., physical, psychological, social, environmental, and cognitive). Their analysis highlighted how mountain biking research increasingly conceptualizes bicycling as a complex biopsychosocial phenomenon rather than a purely recreational or physical pursuit. With the expansion of our review to focus more broadly on all bicycling-based interventions, the convergence between the reviews further supports bicycling's relevance for emotional regulation, stress reduction, and social connectedness. Several patterns emerge from our review, illuminating the holistic impact of bicycling on human well-being, including improvements in participant mental health, depressive symptomology, mood, and cognitive processes. Taken together, this impact may be attributed to factors above and beyond physical activity, including several unique features of bicycling such as outdoor exposure, opportunities for social interaction, and engagement in meaningful routines ( 1, 2). 4.1.1 Psychological Across the reviewed studies, bicycling's impact on psychological well-being, particularly self-efficacy, was context dependent. One intervention demonstrated improved self-efficacy using the validated General Self-Efficacy Scale ( 29) after a bicycling intervention, consistent with findings from Brown et al. ( 5, 104), who reported enhanced self-efficacy among middle school students in mountain bike programs. However, other studies showed a mix of positive, neutral, and even contra-therapeutic outcomes, particularly among sedentary adults and older populations ( 25). This variability underscores the critical importance of “set and setting” in intervention design, suggesting that outcomes are significantly influenced by the psychological and environmental context in which bicycling occurs. It also highlights the importance of designing interventions for older adults that reduce barriers to physical exercise and that make it appealing, particularly for those who have not recently engaged in physical activity. Together, these findings suggest that bicycling interventions are most effective when they foster self-efficacy and align with self-determination theory, supporting autonomy, competence, and relatedness, key drivers of sustained motivation and well-being. While general mental health outcomes were not frequently reported in this review, three studies that did measure general mental health reported positive increases ( 19– 21). Notably, these studies were not solely acute in nature, with programming spanning the course of several weeks. The results indicate that general mental health may be more positively impacted by interventions with multi-session programming compared to acute programming, which is consistent with previous work demonstrating a dose-response relationship between physical activity and mental health ( 105). Future work should examine optimal program length to achieve benefits, as this can be important for practitioners to incorporate into program design. Together, these findings align with preexisting literature emphasizing psychological well-being as a multidimensional construct encompassing self-acceptance, environmental mastery, autonomy, and personal growth ( 106, 107). This supports the assertion that interventions focused on fostering psychological well-being can lead to better coping strategies and improved mental health outcomes which can be leveraged to inform future program development and research ( 1). Previous work suggests techniques for practitioners to adjust programming to enhance self-efficacy by setting challenging but reachable goals that build on each other, creating social groups within an intervention to encourage participation, incorporating self-regulation techniques, and reducing exacerbation of physical limitations ( 108). The adaptability of bicycling factors such as riding location, bicycle type, and opportunities for social engagement support its effectiveness as a tool from which self-efficacy interventions can be tailored. Indeed, Kuklinski et al. ( 103) highlighted self-efficacy and perceived competence as the most frequently cited psychological constructs across mountain biking studies, with outcomes strongly influenced by environmental conditions, risk perception, and social support. They found that experiences fostering mastery and autonomy, particularly in nature-rich settings, were associated with improved confidence, vitality, and identity development. 4.1.2 Social Although social outcomes were only explored among 10 measures, the findings are encouraging. Participants in short-term bicycling interventions consistently demonstrated the ability to expand social networks and reduce loneliness, while those in acute interventions showed potential to foster prosocial behaviors. Additionally, benefits to social well-being were found across both indoor and outdoor studies, highlighting how stationary bikes can also facilitate opportunities for social engagement. Qualitative findings suggested powerful themes around community integration, skill development, and social connectedness, consistent with prior research demonstrating that social interactions and engagement in community activities facilitated through bicycling contribute to greater social cohesion and a sense of belonging ( 5, 9, 104). These findings support the conceptualization of social well-being as encompassing the quality of an individual's relationships and interactions within their community, including intrapersonal feelings of belonging and connection ( 103, 109). Kuklinski et al. ( 103) found that group-based riding promotes prosocial identity formation and inclusion, particularly in participants in youth programs. 4.1.3 Affective In terms of affective well-being, findings indicated differential effects between depression and anxiety outcomes. Depressive symptoms demonstrated consistent improvement across multiple studies using validated instruments, supporting prior research linking physical activity, including bicycling, to reduced depressive symptoms and enhanced mood ( 6). Neurotransmitter secretion during physical activity, such as bicycling, has been linked to improved emotional well-being ( 7), potentially explaining the consistent improvements in depressive symptoms observed across studies. Observed changes in anxiety symptoms after bicycling, on the other hand, were more variable and appeared to be context dependent. For instance, dual-task paradigms, such as bicycling while performing a cognitive task, have been shown to increase anxiety levels, suggesting that cognitive demands during bicycling may moderate affective outcomes ( 57). Many of the acute studies incorporated anxiety or stress inducing components within their interventions, contributing to the higher proportion of negative results among affective well-being. Kuklinski et al. ( 103) reported similar trends in their review, showing that moderate challenge and outdoor exposure during mountain biking enhance affective states through flow state and self-determination, whereas excessive demands, such as a poorly designed or overly competitive environments, could potentially elicit anxiety or fear, further illustrating the importance of emotional regulation and perceived control in bicycling-based interventions. Multi-session interventions were distinct from acute sessions as they reported higher proportions of positive effects of bicycling on improving mood and psychiatric symptoms. These interventions often did not include components that induced negative emotional states within participants, leading to higher proportions of positive results. Similar contrasts were found between outdoor and indoor interventions. These findings highlight the complexity of affective well-being, encompassing both the presence of positive emotions, such as joy and contentment, and the absence of negative emotions, such as anxiety and despair ( 110). 4.1.4 Cognitive In relation to domains of cognitive functioning, several patterns emerged that illustrate the holistic impact of bicycling on well-being. Processing speed on a variety of cognitive tasks improved after participating in both acute and short-term bicycling interventions, though accuracy largely remained unchanged. This aligns with research suggesting the positive impact of physical activity on cognitive processes and executive function ( 111). Across event related potential (ERPs) components, high environmental load (e.g., busy traffic, complex surroundings) appears to enhance early sensory processing (increased N1) while reducing later attentional allocation (reduced P300). In contrast, moderate-intensity or optimal-cadence bicycling may support or enhance cognitive control processes, whereas high-intensity bicycling or fatigue-inducing protocols tend to impair attentional allocation in acute settings. This aligns with an “inverted-U-shaped” relationship between bicycling intensity and cognitive performance, where moderate levels of stimulation optimized neural efficiency while excessive or insufficient intensity may have impaired cognitive outcomes ( 88). This phenomenon was also observed in behavioral measures ( 75). Similar to affective well-being results, multi-session studies reported higher proportions of positive outcomes on cognitive well-being, highlighting how consistent bicycling over time can support brain health and cognitive function. Altogether, these findings suggest that the impact of bicycling on neural processing is influenced by environmental complexity, exercise intensity, consistency, and task demands. Cognitive outcomes were overrepresented in this scoping review, appearing in most studies. However, many of these studies were conducted indoors on stationary bicycles, highlighting the need for translational research to better understand how cognition may be impacted from bicycling outdoors. Indeed, Kuklinski et al. ( 103) noted that only 4% of included outdoor mountain biking studies employed objective neurocognitive measures, highlighting a critical gap for future research. Promising results from Tempest and Reiss ( 98) validated fNIRS as a solution to understanding brain activity while bicycling outside of the lab and found that bicycling modulates cognitive processing. Additionally, 15 studies using EEG were conducted during bicycling, providing evidence that measuring meaningful brain activity during exercise is possible. These findings underscore the importance of conceptualizing cognitive processing as distinct from, yet connected to, psychological and affective responses, as effective cognitive functioning facilitates emotional regulation and supports overall mental health ( 110). Furthermore, research supports the notion that bicycling interventions that seek to enhance cognitive processing can significantly contribute to both learning outcomes and psychological development among participants across various contexts ( 112). 4.1.5 Additional considerations As noted in the results, almost all included studies did not report on participants’ race or ethnicity. Reporting participant racial and ethnic demographics is critical for understanding how bicycling interventions may differently impact people across diverse backgrounds. Previous research has demonstrated lower rates of bicycling participation amongst racial and ethnic minorities in addition to older adults who own bicycles ( 113). Individuals who do not currently identify as bicyclists may experience greater health benefits if they adopt bicycling as a regular lifestyle behavior. Similarly, promising results indicate that bicycling programs can benefit women, who typically participate at lower rates than men, especially in areas where cycling mode share is low ( 114), by improving mood, confidence, and related outcomes ( 32). Future studies should include comparative analyses across gender and explore tailored strategies to address barriers that may differ across groups. Adolescents and older adults were underrepresented in the studies reviewed, yet both groups face critical life transitions that affect well-being. Cycling programs may offer meaningful benefits, including improved focus and well-being in youth ( 5) and enhanced cognitive function, mobility, and mental health in older adults ( 115). Including these populations is essential to understand cycling's benefits across the lifespan, and program design should account for age-specific considerations and barriers, such as safety, motivators, and access to appropriate equipment. Improving access to bicycling and engaging underrepresented populations in research is crucial for understanding how bicycling impacts well-being domains across different groups, while also identifying the associated barriers and facilitators. Community bicycling initiatives and bicycling-related non-profits can play an essential role in expanding access to bicycling and its associated benefits. Clanton et al. ( 15) analyzed how local organizations advance community well-being through bicycling and found that they not only support bicycling itself but also can enhance community well-being across multiple domains. This emphasizes the importance of community-based participatory research, connecting researchers and bicycling organizations, to better understand how real-world bicycling programs impact the well-being of individuals and their communities. Currently published program evaluations and studies of these initiatives demonstrate promising results ( 15, 116), however, there is a need for additional research on bicycling interventions, examining all domains of well-being and how they interact. Despite the majority of included studies examining cognitive outcomes, many of these were acute, on stationary bikes, and in a lab setting. There is opportunity to translate this research into real-world interventions, especially on the impacts of bicycling interventions on the cognition of older adults, as recent work has highlighted how improving lifestyle factors, like increased physical activity, can improve cognition ( 117). 4.2 Limitations and future directions One methodological limitation of this review arose during our search for relevant studies. The term “cycling” was removed from the key terms list because it connotes biological cycle processes. In addition, specific types of bicycles (e.g., e-bikes, tricycles) were not included among our search terms. However, several articles including these types of bikes underwent the screening process. To refine our search, we added in the MeSH terms when available to improve study identification. In addition, bicycling is often referred to as active travel, aerobic exercise, or physical exercise. To improve future searches, authors should ensure appropriate indexing and clearly define the type of physical activity implemented (i.e., bicycling, stationary bike) to improve discoverability and accessibility of the literature. While most studies employed acute interventions using stationary bicycles within a lab setting with adult age groups, future research has exciting opportunities to expand understanding of how bicycling interventions impact domains of well-being. Moving beyond lab settings allows researchers opportunities to examine the potential long-term benefits in ecological contexts, such as outdoor bicycling and active transportation, capturing sustained, real-world benefits beyond acute exercise. Finally, a shift toward naturalistic settings and diverse population sampling, including youth, older adults, racial and ethnic minorities, and individuals with differing abilities or clinical conditions, will strengthen knowledge of bicycling's therapeutic potential across the lifespan. Results from studies engaging clinical populations, such as participants with neurological disorders or metabolic disease, highlight bicycling as a promising therapeutic intervention, however, additional research should replicate and build upon current findings. While many of the included studies assessed the cognitive domain of well-being, fewer studies examined psychological, social, and affective outcomes on well-being. Incorporating objective measures alongside self-report instruments targeting these less studied domains would enhance comparability across studies and reduce potential bias, ultimately building a more robust evidence base for bicycling interventions. Considering the post-pandemic shifts in bicycling patterns and community perceptions ( 118, 119), longitudinal research examining sustained engagement and long-term outcomes would be particularly valuable. 4.3 Conclusions Based on this scoping review, bicycling interventions demonstrate significant promise for promoting well-being across psychological, affective, social, and cognitive domains. While a majority of studies emphasized cognitive effects within an indoor environment, a growing number of studies explored psychological, social, and affective outcomes. Overall, though fewer studies were conducted in outdoor settings, a high percentage of studies reported positive effects regardless of setting. Evidence suggests that bicycling's benefits extend beyond physical health ( 2, 3, 5, 6) to encompass emotional regulation, stress reduction, social connectedness, and cognitive enhancement. However, realizing this potential requires intentional program design, equitable infrastructure development, and continued research across populations in real-world settings. By strategically implementing bicycling interventions within educational, clinical, and community contexts, we can leverage this accessible, low-cost activity to address pressing public health challenges while fostering individual and community well-being. As bicycling continues to gain recognition as both a practical mode of transportation and a therapeutic intervention, stakeholders across sectors have an opportunity to harness its holistic benefits to promote health equity and enhance quality of life across diverse populations.
Statements
Data availability statement The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/Supplementary Material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.
Author contributions LS: Conceptualization, Data curation, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. BR: Conceptualization, Data curation, Investigation, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. EW: Conceptualization, Funding acquisition, Methodology, Supervision, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. SetW: Conceptualization, Writing – review & editing. SeaW: Conceptualization, Writing – review & editing. CB: Conceptualization, Funding acquisition, Methodology, Supervision, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing.
Funding The author(s) declared that financial support was received for this work and/or its publication. This work was supported in part by a REI Cooperative Action Fund grant (2024).
Conflict of interest LS and EW are employees of Outride, a nonprofit organization funded in part by Specialized Bicycle Components. This relationship may be perceived as a competing interest with respect to research on bicycling. The authors affirm that Specialized and all other funders had no role in the study design; data collection, analysis, or interpretation; manuscript preparation; or the decision to submit the manuscript for publication. All other authors (BR, SetW, SeaW, CB) declare that they have no commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. The author SW declared that they were an editorial board member of Frontiers, at the time of submission. This had no impact on the peer review process and the final decision.
Generative AI statement The author(s) declared that generative AI was not used in the creation of this manuscript. Any alternative text (alt text) provided alongside figures in this article has been generated by Frontiers with the support of artificial intelligence and reasonable efforts have been made to ensure accuracy, including review by the authors wherever possible. If you identify any issues, please contact us.
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