GoKawiilLithic weapon points occasionally found in Middle Palaeolithic Neanderthal sites are large and do not differ in size, shape or type from those used in other activities such as butchering or plant gathering. The presence in a same assemblage of various types of projectile armatures, some of which are microlithic and designed for this purpose, has only been documented in Modern Humans sites. Recent studies indicate that light projectile points, which would become a key element in Upper Palaeolithic lithic industries, were already present in its formative stages. However, they remain marginal in debates regarding the Middle to Upper Paleolithic transition. We present the initial findings of a traceological search for weapon heads in the oldest layers of the Obi-Rakhmat rock shelter in Uzbekistan, dating back around 80 ka. The lithic industry of this settlement is forming part of the Levantine Early Middle Paleolithic continuity but with several innovative traits. This site, located in the western foothills of the Tian Shan Mountains, northeastern Uzbekistan, has yielded throughout 10 meters of Pleistocene deposits covering 40,000 years a lithic industry characterized by the systematic production of blades (regular thick narrow blades from unipolar and bipolar sub-prismatic and narrow-faced cores, thin and wide blades from flat-faced Levallois-like cores) along with shorter pieces from convergent or centripetal Levallois cores, and bladelets from burin-cores and other small cores. Three types of projectile armature are identified over a selection of 20: retouched points, bladelets and more particularly unretouched triangular micropoints which had previously gone unoticed due to their fragmentary state. According to the fundamental principles of hunting weapon design these micropoints are too narrow for having been fitted to anything other than arrow-like shafts. They resemble the armatures described in a pioneer settlement by Sapiens in the Rhône Valley, France, 25,000 years later.
Funding: Authors who did not received a specific funding: V.M.K., P.V.C., L.V.Z., E.P., F.A.M. H.P. was supported by the CNRS International Research Laboratory Artemir ( https://www.cnrs.fr/fr ) and by the French Institute for Central Asian Studies ( https://ifeac.hypotheses.org/ ). The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. M.B. was supported by the CNRS International Research Laboratory ZooStan ( https://www.cnrs.fr/fr ). The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. A.V.K. was supported by the Russian Science Foundation ( https://rscf.ru/en/ ), grant agreement # 22-18-00649. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. K.A.K. was supported by the Project of the IAET SB RAS № FWZG-2025-0007 "The Application of Digital Technologies in the Analysis of Archaeological Data and the Reconstruction of the Ancient History". The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.
Left: experimental Solutrean leaf point used as dart head, broken at impact, with long step-terminating bending fracture (TFPS Collective Research Program). Right: profile of the different types of termination according to the resultant of compressive and bending forces [ 39 , 40 ] and their degree of relevance for the recognition of projectile points.
Various criteria have been used to recognise prehistoric hunting weapons. The first is analogy with objects of comparable shape known from ethnographic records or from modern sporting or play practices. This is the case with javelins and throwing sticks from the ancient Palaeolithic [ 11 ]. More sophisticated approaches employ various acuteness indices, such as TCSA and TCSP [ 12 – 17 ], calculated for lithic points based on ethnographic and experimental data. However, these indices only represent theoretical potential [ 18 , 19 ]. As F. Bordes wrote: “It could just as easily be argued that the sockets of bronze spearheads were used to cut rounds out of pie dough” [« On pourrait tout aussi bien soutenir que les douilles des pointes de lance en bronze servaient à découper des ronds dans la pâte à tarte » [ 20 ]]. Furthermore, these indices fail to distinguish between simply tapered heads and those with cutting capacity [ 21 ], which makes a significant difference in real-life hunting, nor do they take into account the incidence on the penetration of the hafting device which depends on the morphology of the basal part. A more reliable basis is provided by functional clues. The most obvious evidence is when the tip of a perforating projectile is found stuck in a bone, though such finds are rare [ 22 – 31 ]. It is far more prevalent to find lithic or bone points that have sustained impact damage. However, this damage is subject to variation depending on the projectile design, the ballistic parameters and the impacted target. In contrast to the direct and invariable cause-and-effect relationship that characterises tools used for cutting, scraping, drilling, etc., where the same causes invariably produce the same effects, the identification of a projectile point or insert constitute an extrapolation based on the direction of the violent stress that resulted in the artefact fracture. It is evident that axial compressive stresses can be induced by factors other than being at the tip of a spear or arrow, such as knapping accident [ 32 – 34 ] ( S1 Fig : 2), certain types of shaping [ 35 ], hard butchering, use as a chisel, accidental dropping, and so forth. In certain instances, the differentiation is simple to make at the level of the artefact itself, in others it can prove more challenging if a series of criteria is not given full consideration. A compelling illustration is given by obsidian points from the Ethiopian rift dated to 279 ka years ago. These points were interpreted as javelin tips on the basis of their shape, apical removals and velocity-dependent microfracture features [ 36 ]. This last innovative criterion is physically relevant, but the presumed cause of the energy involved was likely not. A more extensive study on analogous assemblages, founded upon a technological analysis, posits that the recurrent apical removals on such pointed artifacts result from a rejuvenation by the lateral tranchet blow technique [ 37 ]. More commonly confusing are the minor damages that often occur at the extremity of pointed tools, which is their most exposed and fragile part. The negative of a tiny burin spall can turn a Levallois triangular flake into a projectile head [ 38 , Fig 5 ].
We present here the first results of a search for weapon points in the oldest levels of the Obi-Rakhmat rock shelter in Uzbekistan at around 80 ka. The lithic industry of this settlement is forming part of the continuity of the Levantine Early Middle Paleolithic but with several innovative traits [ 10 ].
Increasing studies show that middle or small sized lithic points which are part of the typological characterisation of the Initial or Early Upper Palaeolithic assemblages were projectile heads [ 2 – 5 ], probably mechanically delivered [ 6 – 8 ]. They mark a technical break with the Middle Palaeolithic; from then on, projectile armatures will become the central structuring element of lithic industries (Bordes and Teyssandier, 2011). In spite of this, they remain marginal in the debates regarding the Middle-to Upper Palaeolithic transition. Already suspected of being present in Obi-Rakhmat sequence despite its age [ 9 ], light projectile points deserve attention.
Instrumented hunting is a distinctive trait of the Homo genus. Given the impact of meat consumption on hominization, both cognitively and behaviourally [ 1 ], the search for archaeological evidence of past weaponry is of primary importance, with a particular attention to the oldest occurrences.
The faunal spectrum at Obi-Rakhmat is limited and shows little variation throughout the stratigraphy ( Fig 2B ). It is dominated by the Siberian ibex (Capra sibirica) and red deer (Cervus elaphus), with smaller contributions from wild boar (Sus scrofra), roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), golden jackal (Canis aureus), fox (Vulpes vulpes), marmot (Marmota sp.) and hare (Lepus sp.). This assemblage reflects a combination of steppe and forest environments [ 59 , 60 ], consistent with palynological data [ 61 ]. Remains of large carnivores, including cave lions, hyenas and bears, are rare. In 2003, human remains were discovered at the site: 6 left maxillary teeth and 121 skull fragments from a single juvenile individual (9–12 years old). While the dental morphology aligns more closely with Neanderthal populations, the mosaic of cranial morphological features prevents a definitive attribution, leaving open a classification as an archaic Homo sapiens [ 47 , 62 – 64 ]. Finally, elements of bone industry have been identified among the faunal remains [ 65 , 66 ].
The exposed stratigraphy ( Fig 2 ) consists of 21 sedimentary levels spanning a depth of 10m [ 44 ], all of which contain archaeological material. The lithic industry, made from local silicified limestone, is homogeneous and characterized by the production of large blades from unipolar or bipolar and narrow-faced cores and bladelets from core-burins and bladelet cores of various morphology. These reduction strategies coexist alongside Levallois concept which is manifested by the presence of convergent or centripetal Levallois cores and flat-faced cores (Levallois-like). The typological tools include blades—often pointed and/or retouched— splintered pieces, burins, end- and side scrapers, denticulated, borers and retouched flakes. Notably, Levallois (mostly elongated) and Mousterian points are also present, the morphology of which is various and corresponds to the typology of retouched points in the Levantine Early Middle Palaeolithic [ 45 , 46 ]. This composition has led to comparisons between the Obi-Rakhmat lithic assemblage and the Late Middle Palaeolithic, Initial and Early Upper Palaeolithic blade industries [ 43 , 47 ] from Near East [ 48 – 51 ] and the Siberian Altai [ 52 – 55 ]. Current research considers the Obi-Rahmat industry exclusively within the Middle Palaeolithic framework [ 10 ]. Attempts to date the site have yielded heterogeneous results, as is often the case when applying different methods ( 14 C AMS, U-series, ESR). However, they fix a chronological range from 90 ka for the deepest strata to 40 ka for the uppermost levels [ 56 – 58 ].
The Obi-Rakhmat rock-shelter is located in the Paltau valley, at the south-western end of the Talassky Alatau range of the Tien Shan mountains, in northeastern Uzbekistan, 100 km of Tashkent. (N41°34’08.8“ and E70°08’00.3”) ( Fig 1 ). Carved into the Palaeozoic limestone at an altitude of 1,250 m, it takes the form of a niche measuring 20 m in width and 9 m in length, with a southern orientation. Since the 1960s, several excavation campaigns have been conducted, initially by the Institute of History and Archaeology of the Uzbek Academy of Sciences [ 41 ], and later in collaboration with the Institute of Archaeology and Ethnography, Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences [ 42 , 43 ].
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