GoKawiilReview maps how electrical double layers behave far from equilibrium
A survey of recent research consolidates evidence on how electrical double layers at charged interfaces behave when driven away from equilibrium, drawing on decades of double-layer theory alongside newer studies of cation effects in CO2 reduction and fuel-cell electrocatalysis. The compiled literature spans classic Gouy-Chapman-Stern-Grahame models through modern spectroscopic and computational probes of interfacial water and ion behavior under applied current.